Impact of Cloud Seeding
1. Evaluation Approaches
There are 3 basic approaches to evaluate a cloud seeding project. Each has advantages and disadvantages.
1. Randomization of seeding
- Seeding is conducted on a randomized basis to develop two populations of storms: seeded and not seeded.
- Ideally, randomization should be blind to those conducting the seeding and also to those involved in the subsequent analysis (double blind).
2. Target vs. control
- All storms in the target area are seeded.
- Measurements are compared with non-seeded storms in a nearby unseeded, crosswind (not downwind) control area.
3. Historical relationship of target and control areas
- The longer-term (climatological) relationship between precipitation in the target and in a nearby upwind unseeded (control) area is examined to establish the relationship when seeding does not occur.
- The relationship is reexamined for situations when seeding occurred.
- The two relationships are compared.
2. Measurement and Analysis Techniques
2.1 "Best-match" Relationship in Radar Analysis
Refers to the Ze-S relationship that minimized the difference between radar-based snowfall estimates and gauge observations
Key Points:
- In the SNOWIE project, differences less than 0.05 mm between radar estimates and gauge measurements
- Helps in accurately quantifying seeding-induced precipitation
2.2 Acre-feet as a Measurement Unit
Used to measure large amounts of water produced by cloud seeding
Unit | Equivalent |
---|---|
1 acre-foot | Volume of water covering one acre of land to a depth of one foot About 325,851 gallons 1,233.5 cubic meters |
Example from SNOWIE project:
Date | Seeding Lines | Production | Duration |
---|---|---|---|
January 19, 2017 | 2 | 123,220 m³ (100 acre-feet) | 67 minutes |
January 20, 2017 | 8 | 241,260 m³ (196 acre-feet) | 160 minutes |
January 31, 2017 | 2 | 339,540 m³ (275 acre-feet) | 25 minutes |
Source for acre-feet values: Friedrich et al., 2020, “Quantifying snowfall from orographic cloud seeding,” PNAS
2.3 Wind Effects on Particle Dispersion
- Wind speed and direction significantly affect transport and dispersion of seeding agents
- Stronger winds led to faster propagation of seeding lines through the observational domain
- Wind direction influenced where precipitation fell relative to the seeding location
Example from SNOWIE:
On January 31, high winds (about 30 m/s at flight level) resulted in seeding lines remaining in the radar observational domain for only about 25 minutes, with some precipitation falling outside the domain
3. Challenges in Attribution
3.1 Isolating Seeding Effects from Natural Variability
One of the primary challenges in cloud seeding research
Difficulties:
- Natural variability in precipitation can mask or mimic seeding effects
- Requires sophisticated measurement techniques and statistical analysis
Recent Advances:
- Use of tracer materials to track seeding agents
- Advanced radar and satellite observations
- Improved statistical methods for isolating seeding signals
3.2 Statistical vs. Physically-based Approaches
Approach | Description | Challenges |
---|---|---|
Statistical | Comparing seeded and unseeded events Target/control area comparisons |
Natural variability Limited sample sizes |
Physically-based | Directly observing and measuring physical changes induced by seeding E.g., radar observations of ice crystal formation and growth |
May be limited in spatial/temporal coverage |
3.3 Uncertainty in Measurement and Modeling
Sources of Uncertainty:
- Variability in cloud microphysics and dynamics
- Limitations in measurement techniques
- Assumptions in numerical models
SNOWIE Project Approach:
- Used multiple measurement techniques (radar and gauges)
- Developed ensembles of Ze-S relationships
- Focused on cases with light or no natural precipitation to more clearly isolate seeding effects
Uncertainty in total accumulation estimates ranged from 20% to 47% in the SNOWIE study
4. Applications of Cloud Seeding
4.1 Water Resource Management
Cloud seeding is used as a tool for enhancing water resources in various regions: 1. Drought mitigation 2. Snowpack enhancement for water supply 3. Hydroelectric power generation 4. Agricultural water supply augmentation
4.2 Snowpack Enhancement
Widely used in mountainous regions to increase winter snowpack
Benefits:
- Increased spring/summer runoff for water supply
- Enhanced ski conditions for tourism
Example: Cloud seeding operations in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California
4.3 Agricultural Benefits
- Used in some agricultural regions to supplement rainfall
Potential Benefits | Challenges |
---|---|
Increased crop yields Reduced irrigation needs |
Ensuring timely and targeted seeding operations Balancing benefits across different agricultural sectors |
4.4 Hail Suppression
- Some cloud seeding programs aim to reduce hail damage
- Technique involves introducing more ice nuclei to create smaller, less damaging hailstones
- Effectiveness is still debated in the scientific community
4.5 Fog Dispersion
- Cloud seeding techniques have been applied to disperse fog at airports
- Aims to improve visibility and reduce flight delays
- Typically uses hygroscopic seeding materials
5. Economic and Social Impacts
5.1 Cost-Benefit Analysis
Factors Considered:
- Cost of seeding operations
- Estimated value of additional water produced
- Potential economic benefits (e.g., increased agricultural output, hydropower generation)
Challenges in quantifying long-term benefits due to natural variability
5.2 Social Perceptions and Acceptance
Public perceptions of cloud seeding vary widely.
Factors Influencing Acceptance:
- Understanding of the technology
- Trust in implementing organizations
- Cultural and religious beliefs about weather modification
Importance of public education and transparent communication
5.3 Policy and Legal Considerations
Development of regulations and guidelines for cloud seeding operations:
- Licensing and certification of operators
- Environmental impact assessments
- Liability for potential negative impacts
Variability in regulations across different countries and regions
5.4 International Implications
- Potential for cross-border impacts of cloud seeding
- Need for international cooperation and guidelines
- Considerations for shared water resources and atmospheric effects